1 INTRODUCTION 2 REVIEW OF STATUS AND NEEDS

1. introduction ============ 2. review of status and needs of facilities in nuclear science: creation o

1.
INTRODUCTION
============
2.
REVIEW OF STATUS AND NEEDS OF FACILITIES IN NUCLEAR SCIENCE:
Creation of a Database
============================================================
3.
REVIEW OF STATUS AND NEEDS OF FACILITIES IN NUCLEAR SCIENCE:
Results of the review
============================================================
1.
Nuclear Data Measurement
------------------------
2.
Reactor Development
-------------------
3.
Neutron Applications
--------------------
4.
ADS and Transmutation Systems
-----------------------------
Transmutation of long-lived nuclides contained in spent nuclear fuels
is one of key technologies for sustainable utilisation of nuclear
energy. Nuclides to be transmuted are minor actinides (MA) such as 237Np,
241Am and 243Am, and long-lived fission products (LLFP) such as 99Tc
and 129I. Additionally, plutonium may also be included depending on
the nuclear fuel cycle policy of individual countries. The basic
concept for transmutation of such nuclides is to irradiate them with
neutrons in nuclear reactors and to induce their fission and capture
reactions. The nuclear reactors can be in a sub-critical or critical
state. The neutron energy spectrum can be that of a fast reactor or a
thermal reactor, though this alteration causes large difference in
cross section of the neutron-induced reactions.
The strategy for transmutation is generally categorized into two
concepts: a heterogeneous cycle or a homogeneous one. A heterogeneous
cycle uses dedicated fuel which contains a large fraction of MA
without uranium. The homogeneous system basically uses commercial
power reactors whose fuel contains a few percent MA.
An accelerator-driven system (ADS) is considered as a powerful tool
for effective transmutation of MA because it can be operated safely
with high MA contents even in a homogeneous mode.
MA fuels for both strategies commonly have a difficulty (more or less)
with their heat generation and radiation emission (gamma-rays and
neutrons). From this point of view, the heterogeneous strategy has an
advantage, since MA can be transmuted in a concentrated manner without
the long-distance transportation of MA-added fuel between a commercial
reprocessing plant and numerous commercial power reactors.
Nevertheless, dedicated MA fuels for the heterogeneous concept have
various technical challenges. The selection of the strategy,
therefore, should be made carefully, based on the particular national
circumstances, its prospect of operating or accessing a nuclear fuel
cycle (e.g. if a country decides not to recycle then transmutation
strategies are also impossible) and on the progress of various items
of R&D.
When we consider the experimental R&D for ADS and other transmutation
systems, three areas should be included: (i) basic databases for MA
and LLFP such as nuclear data, critical experiments and material
properties, (ii) fuel and fuel cycle technology, and (iii) specific
activities for ADS. Although many of the broader aspects of these
activities are described in other sections of this report, it is
sensible to focus on them here in terms of the transmutation
technology. Thus, the technical issues for each item are reviewed and
the required facilities to achieve the technology are discussed in the
following sub-sections.
1.
Basic database for MA and LLFP
------------------------------
A basic database of MA and LLFP data is indispensable for both of the
transmutation strategies. Nuclear data for MA and LLFP nuclides are
very important because they may influence the safety of the
transmutation system as well as the transmutation performance of the
system. Although we have accumulated lots of differential and integral
experimental data for principal nuclides such as 235U, 238U and 239Pu
so far and have modified the nuclear data to reproduce the results of
integral experiments, those data for MA and LLFP are of extremely poor
quality with which to design a transmutation system with high
precision.
Differential nuclear data measurement experiments were very active
worldwide in the 1960's to 80's, but many facilities such as electron
LINACs to make TOF measurements have been shut down. Recently,
accelerator facilities such as high-energy proton accelerators or
heavy ion accelerators, which were originally built for the study of
fundamental physics, are playing an important role to measure the
nuclear data of MA such as the n_TOF facility at CERN [Error:
Reference source not found].
Integral validation of nuclear data is also important. Some activities
of sample irradiation in reactors and critical experiment using
reactivity worth samples and activation foils have been implemented.
However, very few critical experiments have been conducted fuelled
with kilogram order amounts of MA. There is one exception in the BFS
Np experiment in Russia. It is, therefore, significantly important to
make such critical experiments using sizeable amounts of MA for
transmutation systems research. It is from this viewpoint that the
Transmutation Physics Experimental Facility (TEF-P) [1] is being
proposed under the Japan Proton Accelerator Research Complex (J-PARC)
project [2].
A materials properties database for MA and LLFP is also important in
order to design the fuels for transmutation systems. It is, however,
difficult to measure the physical and chemical properties of these
materials because the material itself is rare and the amount of the
materials permitted to be dealt with in a facility is generally
restricted by the licence. It is, therefore, highly recommended that
hot-cell laboratories (like the Minor Actinide Laboratory (MA-Lab) at
ITU Karlsruhe [3]) be retained and that a sound way be developed to
procure MA and LLFP samples for such materials property measurements,
and also for nuclear data measurements and reactor physics experiments.
2.
Fuel and fuel cycle technology
------------------------------
To achieve a meaningful amount of transmutation of long-lived
nuclides, large amounts of MA should be loaded in a transmutation
system as a part of its fuel. For example, about 1 ton of MA would
need to be transmuted per year for a 40 GWe fleet of LWRs, which
implies that 10 tons of MA should be loaded in the transmutation
systems because the transmutation rate is expected to be about 10%
MA/year. If we consider the total inventory of MA in the transmutation
cycle (i.e. including the cooling, reprocessing, and fuel fabrication
stages) further several times larger amounts of MA would have to be
reasonably managed for both homogeneous and heterogeneous strategies.
It is, therefore, of great importance to establish the technology for
the MA-bearing fuel and its fuel cycle.
For the homogeneous strategy, it will be possible to add MA to fast
reactor fuel up to about 5% of the heavy metal. Addition of MA to fast
reactor fuel (oxide or metal) is considered not so influential to the
material properties if it is restricted to a few percent. The
irradiation behaviour of such fuel is, however, still to be verified.
The impact of MA will also possibly appear in the fuel fabrication,
transportation and handling processes because of its high heat
generation, high radioactivity and high neutron emission rate.
As for the dedicated transmutation fuel for the heterogeneous
transmutation, the fuel properties are not yet reliable and nor are
their irradiation behaviour. Although the handling technique of such
dedicated fuel has more challenging features than in the homogeneous
strategy, the amount of the MA-bearing fuel to be dealt with is much
smaller (less than one 10th) and hence MA can be controlled in a
concentrated manner.
The reprocessing of the irradiated MA-bearing fuel is another key
issue for transmutation technology and it is still under development.
Taking these above-mentioned aspects into consideration, test reactors
to irradiate MA-bearing fuel and hot-cell facilities to conduct post
irradiation experiments are essential for the research and development
of transmutation technology. The hot-cell facilities are to be used
also for the fabrication of the irradiation pin and the demonstration
of the reprocessing technology for irradiated MA-bearing fuel.
Moreover, the MA should be supplied in reasonable way through a
separation plant of demonstrative scale.
3.
Specific activities for ADS
---------------------------
An ADS system is a coupling of a proton accelerator, a spallation
target and a sub-critical reactor including a power generation system.
The acceleration energy of the protons will be in the range of 0.4 to
1.5 GeV and the beam power will be greater than 10 MW, which is about
10 times more intense than existing accelerators. The primary
candidate for the spallation target is lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE).
LBE has good properties as a spallation target: a wide range of liquid
state (397 - 1943 K), high density (10500 kg m-3) and hence large
neutron yield. Recent designs of the sub-critical reactor parts of ADS
systems also adopt LBE also as the primary coolant. (See Chapter
Error: Reference source not found for more discussion on liquid metal
test systems.)
Since ADS is a hybrid system, the coupling experiments between an
accelerator and a sub-critical reactor are of great importance to
verify its feasibility as well as the engineering developments for
each component. The technical issues for ADS and relevant experimental
R&D activities are summarized item by item as follows.
a) Accelerator
For the proton accelerator portion of an ADS system, a superconducting
LINAC is regarded as a promising candidate to fulfil the required
performance in beam intensity and energy efficiency. The problem with
a LINAC in comparison with circular accelerators such as cyclotrons
would be the cost. In addition to these requirements, the reliability
(or stability) in order to reduce the beam trip frequency and the
power level controllability are important and particular features of
an accelerator to be used for ADS in comparison with conventional
accelerators used in physics research.
The Los Alamos National Laboratory has already accumulated remarkable
experience of proton LINAC operation since the 1960's and is
delivering an 800 MeV  1 mA = 0.8 MW pulsed proton beam. Proton
LINACs are being constructed or are in commissioning under the
following projects: SNS in USA with 1 GeV  2 mA = 2 MW, the J-PARC
project in Japan with 400 MeV  0.33 mA = 0.13 MW and the PEFP project
in the Republic of Korea with 100 MeV  1.6 mA = 0.16 MW. All of these
proton LINACs are operated in pulsed mode, though a continuous beam is
preferable for ADS. As for the continuous mode operation, a ring
cyclotron at the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) in Switzerland has
shown noteworthy performance so far with 590 MeV  1.6 mA = 0.94 MW.
In addition to these accelerator facilities, several R&D activities
for particular areas such as an intense ion source, a low energy part
and a superconducting cryomodule have been conducted in the world.
Although most of the R&D activities for ADS accelerators can be
covered by these various activities, it is considered necessary to
build a dedicated accelerator in order to demonstrate its reliability,
controllability, economy and safety for application to a nuclear
energy system. Such a demonstration accelerator would be coupled with
a sub-critical reactor as an experimental ADS, which is described
later - see d) below.
b) Spallation target
Materials for spallation targets are solid heavy metals (Pb, Ta, W, U)
and liquid ones (Hg, Pb-Bi). As previously mentioned, recent designs
of ADS in the world usually adopt the Pb-Bi (lead-bismuth eutectic:
LBE) as the spallation target.
Two types of target design are mainly studied: a window type and a
windowless one. The window type has a physical boundary called the
beam window, usually made of steel alloy, between the LBE target and
the evacuated beam duct. The beam window should be able to accept
several tens mA of proton beam which clearly will generate heat
deposition in the beam window and induce spallation reactions in the
window material. The beam density at the beam window is, therefore,
restricted at about 30 A cm-2. Moreover, it should be noted that the
beam window of a real ADS would be irradiated by fission neutrons from
the sub-critical core region as well as protons and spallation
neutrons from the target. The beam window, therefore, should be
exchanged periodically for reasons of corrosion and irradiation
damage.
At present, the status of material irradiation data is too poor to
make a reliable design for a window type target. Recently, the MEGAPIE
[4] project demonstrated the feasibility of a high power LBE target at
the SINQ facility at PSI. Its post irradiation test will produce
valuable knowledge. It is, however, highly recommended that a
dedicated irradiation facility for the spallation target material for
ADS be built so that a materials properties database can be prepared
covering a wide range of design conditions such as temperature, oxygen
content and flow velocities of the LBE, beam density and irradiation
period.
To avoid the above-mentioned technical challenges in the beam window,
a window-less design is being investigated, mainly in European
countries. The basic idea is to maintain a free surface of the LBE jet
by inertia. The vapour of the LBE and other spallation products
elements and activation products are evacuated between the target
region and the accelerator part to prevent the accelerator being
contaminated. However, the stable control of such a free surface might
be difficult when a high power proton beam is incident. To show the
engineering feasibility of this type of target, therefore, a
demonstration using a real proton beam with megawatt class is
considered necessary before connecting it to a sub-critical reactor,
as well as mock-up experiments without beams.
c) Sub-critical core
The significant issues for this part of an Accelerator Driven System
relate to the cooling of the core region and its reactor physics.
The candidate for the primary coolant of the sub-critical core of an
ADS which has been studied most is LBE. However, the corrosive nature
of LBE above 500°C is one of the technical challenges for ADS. To
overcome this problem, the control of the oxygen concentration in the
LBE is believed to be one of the promising methods. Another method is
to develop new materials with particular elements or surface coatings.
In any case, the experimental verification of the materials in flowing
LBE is essential to the use of LBE as the core coolant. From this
point of view, many LBE loop facilities have been built around the
world and databases are being accumulated. The results from such
facilities are not always consistent with each other because of the
lack of reproducibility of the experimental conditions. It is
therefore recommended that an international benchmark of experiments
be organised to establish a world standard of the materials properties
for the LBE coolant. Moreover, an integral test to verify the
feasibility of oxygen control in a realistic reactor vessel would be
necessary before constructing a large-scale LBE cooled nuclear system.
The thermal-hydraulics of the LBE coolant should be also verified by
experimental work. The high speed of the LBE flow (more than 2 m s-1)
might cause local erosion of the materials in the core. Large scale
components such as heat exchangers and pumps are also still to be
developed for LBE. (See the FP6 – VELLA Initiative [5].)
It should be noted that when we use LBE as the primary coolant and/or
spallation target, the management of activation products such as 210Po
and spallation products are quite important for the safe operation of
the system.
The reactor physics and the control of sub-critical reactors should be
expected to be dissimilar to those of conventional critical ones, and
these aspects would be influential to the performance and the safety
of the whole system. By analogy with the R&D for fast reactors,
experimental verifications with use of zero power critical /
sub-critical facilities are important for robust development of ADS
for transmutation. Several experimental projects such as MUSE in
France [6]and YALINA in Belarus [7] were made or are under way using
DT and DD neutron sources. The KUCA facility in Japan [8] is about to
start sub-critical experiments using a proton accelerator and a
thermal spectrum critical assembly. The TEF-P facility is also planned
in Japan [Error: Reference source not found] to connect a spallation
neutron source from a 400 - 600 MeV proton beam with a fast-spectrum
critical assembly. These planned experimental works ought to be
important bases for ADS and transmutation technology.
d) Accelerator-reactor coupling experiments
Before proceeding to large-scale ADS experimental facility with
several tens of megawatts of thermal power, a capability in
determining the reactivity level must be demonstrated. Special
attention will be given to the investigation of on-line reactivity
monitoring techniques and experimental techniques used at beam trips
for the determination of the reactivity. Therefore, there is need for
a lead fast critical facility connected to a continuous beam
accelerator. The GUINEVERE-project (Generator of Uninterrupted Intense
NEutrons at the lead VEnus REactor) [9] will be carried out and will
make use of the modified VENUS critical facility [10] located at
SCK-CEN Centre in Mol which will be coupled to a adapted neutron
generator based on a continuous beam accelerator (GENEPI) working in
current mode. The experimental programme on GUINEVERE is expected to
produce valuable knowledge about the controllability of an ADS system
including start-up and shut-down procedures and the management method
of the beam trip transients.
In terms of very recent activities it can be noted that the Kumatori
Accelerator-driven Reactor Test Facility (KART) has recently come into
operation [Error: Reference source not found] whereas, on the negative
side, the TRADE facility at ENEA has been cancelled.
4.
National and International Projects
-----------------------------------
a) European Projects for ADS and Transmutation
The “ADOPT” programme [11] was mentioned in the previous report
[Error: Reference source not found] where a summary of that programme
may be found. However, the ADOPT programme has been completed and had
been replaced by Integrated Project EUROTRANS [12], for which overview
information is available in the papers by Knebel et al [13, 14] at
8IEMPT, Las Vegas, November, 2004 [15] and at 9IEMPT, Nîmes, September
2006 [16].
In summary, IP EUROTRANS is part of the EURATOM 6th Framework
Programme in the Thematic Priority Area “Management of Radioactive
Waste: Transmutation” for which the focus is the evaluation of the
industrial practicability of transmutation of high-level nuclear waste
in an Accelerator Driven System (ADS) together with the development of
the basic knowledge and technologies needed. Implementation of
partitioning and transmutation of a large part of the high level
nuclear wastes in Europe needs the demonstration of the feasibility of
several installations at an “engineering” level. The R&D activities
have been described through four “building blocks”:
i.
Demonstration of the capability to process a sizable amount of
spent fuel from commercial power plants in order to separate Pu
and MA,
ii.
Demonstration of the capability to fabricate, at semi-industrial
level, the dedicated fuel needed to load a dedicated transmuter,
iii.
Availability of one or more dedicated transmuters,
iv.
Realisation of a specific installation for processing of the
dedicated fuel unloaded from the transmuter, and fabrication of
new dedicated fuel.
IP EUROTRANS is dealing with the third building block: the transmuter.
Consequently, the objectives of IP EUROTRANS are:
*
To carry out a first advanced design of a 50 to 100 MWth eXperimental
facility (realisation in a short-term, say about 10 years)
demonstrating the technical feasibility of Transmutation in an Accelerator
Driven System (XT-ADS), as well as to accomplish a generic
conceptual design (several 100 MWth) of the European Facility for
Industrial Transmutation (EFIT) (realisation in the long-term).
This step-wise approach is termed as European Transmutation Demonstration
(ETD) approach,
*
For the above devices, provide validated experimental input (such
as experimental techniques, dynamics, shielding, safety and
licensing issues) from experiments on the coupling of an
accelerator, an external neutron source and a sub-critical
blanket,
*
to develop and demonstrate the necessary associated technologies,
especially accelerator components, fuels development, heavy liquid
metal technologies, and the required nuclear data,
*
to prove its overall technical feasibility, and to carry out an
economic assessment of the whole system.
*
to direct input to other FP6 Projects: PATEROS (Partitioning and
Transmutation European Roadmap for Sustainable nuclear energy) [17]
and SNF-TP (Sustainable Nuclear Fission Technology Platform) [18].
b) Other Developments Worldwide
Developments elsewhere in the world and at national level include:
*
USA: the Advanced Fuel Cycle Initiative [19].
*
USA: Idaho National Laboratory and the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology investigated medium power lead alloy cooled systems
with the aim of producing low cost energy and, at the same time,
burning actinides [20].
*
France: GEDEPEON (Gestion de Déchets Radioactives par des Options
Nouvelle) programme [21] (formerly “GEDEON”),
Reviewing particular facilities, the following are worth noting:
*
Republic of Korea (Seoul National University (SNU)): At SNU, a
Pb-Bi cooled transmutation reactor known as PEACER
(Proliferation-resistant, Environment-friendly, Accident-tolerant,
Continual and Economical Reactor [22]) has been developed since
1998.
*
Belgium (SCK-CEN): studies in the field of lead-bismuth eutectic
(LBE) technology since 1997 have been related to the project
MYRRHA (Multi-purpose hYbrid Research Reactor for High-tech
Applications) [Error: Reference source not found] which is aimed
at the development of a research reactor driven by an accelerator,
where LBE is used as spallation target and coolant. MYRRHA is a
small Pb-Bi-cooled XADS (40 MWth core power, driven by a 350 MeV 
5 mA proton beam current to be delivered by a cyclotron or a
linear accelerator on a liquid Pb-Bi windowless spallation
target). (NB This Programme is largely incorporated in
IP-EUROTRANS.)
*
Japan, both ADS and LFR systems using LBE are under the
development. At JAEA an ADS with 800 MW thermal power has been
designed, where 250 kg of minor actinides and some LLFP
(Long-Lived Fission Products) can be transmuted annually. R & D
has been conducted on ADS using LBE as a spallation target and a
coolant, and research using J-PARC is also planned. LFR systems
using LBE as a coolant have been studied both at TIT (Tokyo
Institute of Technology) and JAEA separately. One of the LFR
systems studied at TIT is designated as PBWFR (Pb-Bi Cooled Direct
Contact Water Fast Reactor) [23].
*
Russia: there has been, recently, renewed interest in lead and LBE
coolants for civilian fast reactors, e.g. the lead-cooled BREST [24]
reactor design and the LBE-cooled SVBR concept [25].
c) OECD/NEA Activities
The NEA NSC International Workshops on the Utilisation and Reliability
of High Power Proton Accelerators (see 4th Workshop, Daejeon, Korea, [26],
5th Workshop Mol, Belgium [27]) have information on Accelerator-Driven
Systems. Discussions focussed on accelerator reliability; target,
window and coolant technology; sub-critical system design and ADS
simulations; safety and control of ADS; and ADS experiments and test
facilities. The proceedings contain the technical papers presented at
the workshops as well as summaries of the working group discussions
held.
d) Fast Neutron Irradiation Facilities
It should be noted that within the OECD, only two countries possess
fast experimental neutron reactors: France with Phenix (250/150 MWe)
[Error: Reference source not found] and Japan with JOYO (140 MWth)
[Error: Reference source not found]. Phenix will definitively stop in
2009. Hence, progress in knowledge acquisition might be hindered.
The US envisages constructing one or more ABRs under the GNEP
programme [Error: Reference source not found], while France intends to
have one Gen IV SFR by 2020. Nevertheless, no alternative option can
be found among the OECD Member States for the period 2009-2014.
In non-OECD countries, Russia has an experimental fast reactor, BOR60,
likely to be stopped in 2010, while India has also one – the FBTR
(40MWth) – and is currently constructing a 500MWe Prototype Fast
Breeder Reactor (PFBR). China is constructing its own reactor, the
CEFR (65MWth).
Finally, it is noted that discussion of the associated topic of
Partitioning, which is often linked with Transmutation, can be found
in Chapter Error: Reference source not found. NB The IAEA has created
a database which covers Accelerator Driven Systems (ADS) and
Partitioning and Transmutation (P&T) related R&D issues [28].
RECOMMENDATIONS:
An international roadmap for ADS is of importance.
ADS and transmutation technology are becoming important for the
sustainable development of nuclear energy all over the world. The
technical challenges for ADS, however, spread over a wide range of
fields. It is, therefore, strongly desirable to share the experimental
efforts in a systematic way. The MEGAPIE project [Error: Reference
source not found] was a good precursor for the international
collaboration in this field.
An intermediate goal before the realisation of transmutation using ADS
should be an experimental ADS system. European counties are
implementing intense R&D for the XT-ADS project, which would be an
experimental ADS with several-tens of megawatts of thermal power. It
is highly recommended to expand the XT-ADS project to a global
programme in a similar form to the ITER project in fusion energy
development.
Before proceeding to such a demonstration stage, establishment of the
technical basis from which to deal with MA in nuclear energy systems
and to couple a proton accelerator with a fast-spectrum reactor are
extremely important for the purpose of ensuring reliable design of the
system, safety assessment and discipline of young scientists and
engineers. From this viewpoint, the Transmutation Experimental
Facility [Error: Reference source not found] under the J-PARC project
in Japan is expected to play important roles if it is constructed in
an international framework.
References
==========
1 Transmutation Physics Experimental Facility
http://j-parc.jp/Transmutation/en/ads.html
2 J-PARC, http://j-parc.jp/index-e.html
3 Minor Actinide Laboratory (MA-Lab) at ITU Karlsruhe
http://itu.jrc.cec.eu.int/index.php?id=295#1244
4 MEGAPIE, http://megapie.web.psi.ch/
5 Virtual European Lead Laboratory (VELLA) project,
http://www.3i-vella.eu/
6 MUSE-4 (MUltiplication of an External Source)
http://lpsc.in2p3.fr/gpr/physor04/physor_95619.pdf
7 Kiyavitskaya H. L., Koulikovskaya A V., Routkovskaya C. C, Fokov A
Yu., Fokov Yu. G. “Booster subcritical assembly "Yalina-B" driven by
external neutron sources”. Doklady of the National Academy of Sciences
of Belarus (Doklady Natsionalnoi Akademii Nauk Belarusi) Volume 50,
Number 6; November-December, 2006, pp. 115--118. See also:
http://www.iaea.org/OurWork/ST/NE/NEFW/documents/TMonUseofLEUonADS/PDFPapers/Kiyavitskaya_Paper.pdf
8 Kyoto University Critical Assembly (KUCA)
http://www.rri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/CAD/english/index.htm
9 The GUINEVERE-project
http://www.sck.be/sckcen/ScientificReports/2006/1_reactor_technology/pdf/13_printed_ANS_peter_baeten_GUINEVERE.pdf
10 The VENUS critical facility
http://www.sckcen.be/SCKCEN_Information_Package_2005/CDROM_files/public/installaties_onderzoek/FR/VENUS.pdf
11 ADOPT, www3.sckcen.be/adopt/
12 IP-EUROTRANS
http://nuklear-server.fzk.de/eurotrans/Start.html
13 J U. Knebel et al, Integrated Project EUROTRANS: 8IEMT, Las Vegas,
November, 2004
http://www.nea.fr/html/pt/docs/iem/lasvegas04/11_Session_V/S5_01.pdf
and
http://www.sckcen.be/myrrha/files/TopicalDay_23Nov04/presentations/Presentation_Knebel.pdf
14 J U. Knebel et al, Integrated Project EUROTRANS: 9IEMT, Nîmes,
September 2006
http://www.nea.fr/html/pt/iempt9/Nimes_Presentations/KNEBEL.pdf
15 8IEMT, Eighth Information Exchange Meeting, Actinide and Fission
Product Partitioning & Transmutation, Las Vegas, November, 2004
http://www.nea.fr/html/pt/iempt8/index.html
16 9IEMT, Ninth Information Exchange Meeting, Actinide and Fission
Product Partitioning & Transmutation, Nîmes, September 2006
http://www.nea.fr/html/pt/iempt9/index.html
17 FP6 Programme PATEROS (Partitioning and Transmutation European
Roadmap for Sustainable nuclear energy)
http://www.sckcen.be/pateros/
18 FP6 Programme SNF-TP (Sustainable Nuclear Fission Technology
Platform)
http://cordis.europa.eu/fetch?CALLER=PROJ_EURATOM_FP6&ACTION=D&DOC=20&CAT=PROJ&QUERY=1184688313161&RCN=80045
19 Report to Congress: Advanced Fuel Cycle Initiative:
http://www.gnep.energy.gov/pdfs/afciCongressionalReportMay2005.pdf
20 Todreas N. E., MacDonald P. E., Buongiorno J., Loewen E. P.,
“Medium – Power Lead Alloy Reactors: Missions for this Reactor
Technology”, Nuclear Technology, Vol 147- No. 3 (Sep. 2004) 305.
21 GEDEPEON (Gestion Des Dechets Et Production D'energie Par Des
Options Nouvelles), http://www.gedeon.prd.fr/
22 Seoul National University “PEACER” Reactor
http://peacer.org/new/brochure.pdf
23 Tokyo Institute of Technology, Pb-Bi Cooled Direct Contact Water
Fast Reactor (PBWFR),
http://www.nr.titech.ac.jp/coe21/eng/events/ines1/pdf/60_sofue.pdf
24 BREST Reactor,
http://www.nikiet.ru/eng/structure/mr-innovative/brest.html
25 Stepanov V.S., et.al., “SVBR-75: a reactor module for renewal of
WWER-440 decommissioning reactors – safety and economic aspects, IAEA
– TECDOC 1056, pp165-176, November 1998
26 Fourth International Workshop Proceedings “Utilisation and
Reliability of High Power Proton Accelerators”, Daejeon, Republic of
Korea, 16-19 May 2004, ISBN: 92-64-01380-6
and http://www.nea.fr/html/science/hpa4/
27 Fifth International Workshop on the “Utilisation and Reliability of
High Power Proton Accelerators, SCK-CEN, Mol, Belgium, May 2007
http://www.nea.fr/html/science/hpa5/index.html
28 IAEA Database on Accelerator Driven Systems (ADS) and Partitioning
and Transmutation (P&T) related R&D issues.
http://www-adsdb.iaea.org/index.cfm
10