Depression War And Recovery In Wales & England 19301951

depression, war and recovery in wales & england 1930-1951 depression, war and recover

Depression, War and Recovery
in Wales & England 1930-1951




Depression, War and Recovery 1930-1951
Key Question: What were the main causes of the Depression?
The decline of the old heavy industries
Following World War I the traditional heavy industries – on which
Britain’s industrial revolution was based e.g. coal, iron & steel,
shipbuilding and textiles factories – fell into heavy decline.
Why did these industries decline?
*
Rising costs.
*
Failure to invest in new technology & modern machinery.
*
Increased competition from abroad e.g. German or Polish coal,
American steel, Japanese ships. More expensive British goods could
not compete with cheaper foreign imports.
*
The coal industry was further hit as oil was replacing coal as the
main fuel for ships.
*
The Wall Street Crash from 1929 led to a further slump in world
trade.
The regions most affected by the decline of the old heavy industries
included:
*
South Wales – coal, iron and steel (and to a lesser extent N.E.
Wales)
*
North West England – textile factories
*
North East England – shipbuilding & coal
In 1913 Wales had 485 coal mines, employing over 250,000 miners and
producing 57 million tons of coal. By 1934 the South Wales coalfields
employed only 126,000 men and produced 35 million tons of coal.
Through most of the 1930’s South Wales was an unemployment ‘black
spot’ with unemployment at over 40%. The region was officially
declared a ‘depressed area’. The closure of the iron and steel works
in the Merthyr area caused further unemployment and hardship.
There was mass unemployment in South Wales because of the great drop
in demand for British coal and steel. This was also the case in the
traditional textile producing area around Manchester. The cotton
factories of Manchester, which before 1914 had supplied 65% of the
world’s market, saw their share drop to 28% by 1938. The number of
people employed in the industry fell from 621,500 in 1911 to 393,000
in 1938.
As world trade declined, too many shipyards were competing for the
limited amount of work available. The ship yards of Merseyside and
North East England (e.g. Jarrow) laid off thousands of workers.

Key Question: How were people able to cope with the challenges of the
Depression years?
Government measures to deal with the Depression
The government’s response to the crisis was to cut costs. In 1931 the
dole was cut by 10% and means tested. An unemployed person had to
prove that he needed the dole. As the Depression deepened and there
was even less money available to the government, the Unemployment Act
of 1934 set up Unemployment Assistant Boards (UABs). The UAB’s managed
the means test even more stringently, with benefits being paid only to
those ‘desperately in need’, and then only if they were actively
seeking work.
The Special Areas Act of 1934 appointed a government commissioner to
oversee each of four ‘distressed’ areas, including south-east Wales.
£1 million was provided to encourage employers to set up factories in
these special areas. The Treforest Trading Estate was set up near
Cardiff. However, employers were reluctant to move from the more
prosperous areas of the Midlands and London to Wales. By 1939 only
2500 workers were employed at Treforest. More successful was the
opening of a new and modern steelworks at Ebbw Vale.


Protest and hunger marches
M ass unemployment and the lack of government action led to
hunger marches. These protests were organised marches to protest
against the continuing unemployment and hardship. The people of South
Wales felt they were being ignored and had no choice but to protest.
The most famous hunger march was the Jarrow March of 1936. When the
government did nothing to prevent the closure of Palmer’s shipyard,
75% of Jarrow’s workforce became unemployed. In an attempt to meet the
Prime Minister, 200 of them marched 300 miles to London. Newsreel
cameramen and press photographers marched with them and recorded their
14-day trek. They marched to the sound of mouth organs and they were
fed and sheltered by sympathisers along the way. However, like other
hunger marches it achieved little. Although they gained publicity for
their cause, the government did little to help.
Local protests were also held against the cut in dole payments and the
means test. The means test was particularly hated as it was seen as
intrusive. Savings had to be used up before the dole could be claimed.



How did women make ends meet during the Depression?
*
Women made the limited dole money go as far as possible e.g. they
bought cheap cuts of meat and made affordable meals.
*
Clothes were handed down from child to child or from family to
family.
*
They would take in washing or sewing to supplement their meagre
income.
*
They often went without food themselves so that their families
could keep healthy. The figures for deaths in childbirth and
women’s illnesses were higher in Wales than elsewhere in Britain.
Did all people in these regions suffer hardship in the Depression?
There were pockets of prosperity in areas like Roath and Cyncoed in
Cardiff, the Uplands in Swansea and Garden Village in Wrexham. The
greater variety of work available in the port of Cardiff meant that it
was spared the worst effects of the Depression. Unemployment in the
Rhondda Valley was nearly four times higher than in Cardiff. Through
the Special Areas Act, the steel industry built a new plant at Ebbw
Vale from 1938 which helped bring some recovery to this area.
The new light industries
Despite the Depression, there was much expansion of new ‘light’
industries such as car manufacturing and electrical goods, based on
mass production. The new ‘light’ industries were largely powered by
electricity, not coal, so factories no longer had to be built near
coalfields. These new factories could be built in areas of high
population, with a ready market and skilled labour force nearby.
80% of the new factories built and 65% of the new jobs created from
1931-1937 were in London and the South East.
Some people, especially in the South East of England, found their
living standards rising. By the 1930s more and more houses had mains
electricity. Wealthier families were buying vacuum cleaners, fridges
and cookers. By 1937 over half of all households in Britain had a
radio. Advertising and the emergence of credit schemes boosted sales.
Mass production techniques saw the price of the Austin Seven car fall
from £225 in 1923 to £125 by 1936. The number of cars sold in Britain
increased from 132,000 in 1913 to 2 million by 1938. However, the new
industries created 1 million jobs fewer than were lost in the
declining heavy industries.
Migration from Wales
Due to the mass unemployment in the traditional Welsh industries of
coal and steel, some 430,000 people left Wales during the 1920s and
1930s in search of work and a better life. Most went to the more
prosperous regions of South East England or the Midlands. Many
Welshmen found work at the Morris car plant at Cowley in Oxford. Some
took advantage of an official government scheme to find work and
accommodation in England for unemployed workers from Wales. In these
areas new housing estates were often built, offering a higher standard
of living. However, these Welsh migrants were not always welcome in
their new communities as, having experienced long-term unemployment,
they were willing to work for lower rates of pay.
Popular Entertainment
Sport and popular entertainment helped people cope with the hardships
caused by the Depression. Cinema was the most popular form of
entertainment in the 1930s as:
*
It was cheap – even the unemployed could enjoy the occasional
night out
*
From the late 1920’s films were given soundtracks and became
‘talkies’
*
The glamour of the American films gave people the opportunity to
escape the harsh realities of their lives
*
New luxury cinemas were built in many towns
*
I t was an opportunity to watch newsreels as well as the
latest films
Mass production of radios meant that by the 1930’s the price of a
radio was at a level most people could afford. By 1937 nearly 75% of
all households in Britain had a radio. In 1926 the BBC was set up to
run the new national radio service. The BBC broadcast plays, popular
music and comedy, as well as schools programmes. In 1937 the BBC set
up the BBC Welsh region, offering more Welsh-based programmes in Welsh
and English from Cardiff.
The BBC feared that cinema would replace radio as the most popular
form of entertainment. In 1936 the BBC began live television
broadcasts. However, this new form of entertainment was far too
expensive for most people and by 1939 there were only 50,000 viewers.
Sport was the other form of popular entertainment in Wales, especially
football, rugby and boxing. These sports continued to provide
excitement and an escape from the problems of life. As people had less
money to spend though, professional football, which depended on large
crowds, suffered in Wales. Both Aberdare and Merthyr Tydfil were
forced to leave the football league. Amateur sport such as rugby union
did better. In 1935 Wales beat both England and New Zealand. However,
a number of talented Welsh rugby union players joined rugby league
teams in the north of England where they were paid for playing. Boxing
was very popular during the depression, giving a way to escape poverty
and unemployment. The greatest Welsh sporting hero of the 1930’s was
the boxer, Tommy Farr, who very nearly beat the great Joe Louis.
Other forms of entertainment for people with little money but time on
their hands included the libraries to read books or newspapers,
working men’s clubs or betting on horse or greyhound racing.
Popular entertainment was important as it played a key role in helping
people to cope with the hardship of the Depression. It helped to keep
up morale and to foster a spirit of community spirit during a time of
great hardship.




Did the problems caused by the Depression in Wales and England affect
everyone equally in England and Wales?
YES
NO
*
The Special Areas Act brought some relief to the most depressed
regions e.g. a modern steel plant was opened at Ebbw Vale,
bringing some support to this region.
*
All benefited from cheap forms of popular entertainment such as
the cinema, radio and libraries.
*
Some unemployed people were given government support to relocate
to more prosperous regions.
*
Even in regions which suffered most, people did not suffer equally
e.g. in South Wales there were pockets of prosperity such as Roath
and Cyncoed in Cardiff and the Uplands in Swansea.
*
There was a marked difference between the regions of traditional
heavy industry and those of new industry e.g. in 1934 unemployment
in Jarrow was 68% and in Merthyr Tydfil it was 62% whilst in
Oxford it was only 5% and in St Albans it was 4%. Unemployment in
the Rhondda Valley was 4 times higher than in Cardiff.
*
80% of the new factories built and 65% of the new jobs created
from 1931-1937 were in London and the South East.
*
Women often suffered more than other members of the family as
mothers put their needs last.
*
The hunger marches were all from regions of traditional heavy
industry.





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Key Question: How effectively did Britain prepare for war?
Why did Britain go to war with Germany?
Hitler and the Treaty of Versailles
During the 1920s hatred against the Treaty of Versailles developed in
Germany. A significant factor in the rise of Hitler and the Nazis was
the promise to undo the terms of the treaty. On coming to power in
1933 Hitler made secret plans to undo many of the terms of the treaty,
including rearming Germany and regaining land lost through the treaty
since 1919.
Reoccupation of the Rhineland, 1936
The Rhineland was the area of western Germany that bordered France and
Belgium. This area of Germany was demilitarised under the terms of the
Treaty of Versailles to protect France and Belgium from any possible
future German invasion. In March 1936 Hitler ordered the German army
to reoccupy the Rhineland, openly breaking the Treaty of Versailles.
Hitler knew that the German army was not yet ready for battle and gave
orders that if they met any resistance from the French army, they were
to withdraw immediately. However, neither the French nor British did
anything. By successfully defying the Western powers and the Treaty of
Versailles, Hitler increased his popularity and power in Germany.
Explain why Britain accepted Germany’s re-occupation of the Rhineland
in 1936
*
Many in Britain believed that the Treaty of Versailles had been
too harsh on Germany and that Hitler was justified in placing
German troops in the Rhineland. Some argued that Germany had
suffered enough after World War I and was entitled to remilitarise
the land.
*
Many remembered the horrors of World War I and wanted to avoid
another war at all costs.
*
The British army was too weak for war at this time.
*
Most British people were more concerned with surviving the
hardship of the Depression at this time.
*
Britain was also focused on keeping its empire together.
*
It was argued that a strong Germany would help to contain the
expansion of Communist Russia.
*
It was still believed at this time that Hitler was a man to be
trusted.
*
The failure of collective security.
The Anschluss (union) with Austria, 1938
As an Austrian by birth, Hitler had personal reasons for hating the
ban that had been imposed at Versailles on an Anschluss, or union,
between Austria and Germany. Hitler dreamed of one great
German-speaking nation in central Europe.
Austrian supporters were well organised and were already staging
demonstrations in favour of the Anschluss with Germany. The Austrian
Chancellor, Schuschnigg, was forced to meet Hitler. At the meeting
Schuschnigg gave into Hitler’s demands. A month later, on March 11th,
Hitler demanded that Seys-Inquart, a Nazi support, replace
Schuschnigg. Schuschnigg resigned and Seys-Inquart took over as
Chancellor. The following day, March 12th 1938, German troops crossed
into Austria. They met with no resistance. The Anschluss had been
successful and Hitler now controlled Austria.
Britain and France protested, as they had done after the reoccupation
of the Rhineland, but again no action was taken (for the same
reasons).
The Sudetenland
Within the western part of Czechoslovakia – known as the Sudetenland –
lived a large German-speaking minority of 3½ million. This region had
been part of Austria-Hungary until the Treaty of Versailles. These
people had never been German citizens but, encouraged by Nazi
propaganda, some began to protest in favour of union with Germany.
Throughout the summer of 1938 Hitler laid claim to the Sudetenland in
ever more aggressive speeches. Hitler ordered Heinlein, leader of the
Czech Germans, to begin demonstrations demanding union with Germany.
The Czech government was determined to resist Hitler and asked the
west for support. Hitler threatened war.
A worried Neville Chamberlain (British Prime Minister) flew twice to
meet with Hitler. The meetings ended in deadlock with Hitler demanding
the whole of Czechoslovakia be given to him. Britain reluctantly began
preparing for war
e.g. the Royal navy was mobilised, trenches were dug, sandbags were
issued & air-raid precautions taken. On September 29th 1938, in a
desperate bid to avoid war, Chamberlain again flew to meet Hitler, at
Munich.
The Munich Agreement, 1938
At Munich Chamberlain met with Hitler, Mussolini (Italy) and Daladier
(France).
It was agreed that the Sudetenland would be given to Germany. Britain
and France guaranteed to protect the rest of Czechoslovakia and Hitler
promised that the Sudetenland would be his last demand in Europe. On
his return to London Chamberlain was greeted by cheering crowds and he
waved the Munich Agreement declaring, ‘I believe it is peace for our
time’. The Czech government felt betrayed by Britain and France.
Czechoslovakia, March 1939
Czechoslovakia had been severely weakened by the Munich Agreement. In
its weakened state it didn’t stand a chance against German aggression.
Six months after signing the Munich Agreement, Hitler ignored it and
the German army moved in and occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia on
March 15th 1939. A shocked Chamberlain now realised that Britain had
to prepare fully for war and began a great programme of rearmament.
Chamberlain and most British people now came to realise that Hitler
could not be trusted or reasoned with.
H ow important was the Munich Agreement?
The Munich Conference was significant as it led to the 4 powers of
Germany, Britain, Italy and France holding peace talks. The Agreement
led to the Sudetenland being surrendered to Germany. This further
increased Hitler’s power (the Sudetenland included the Skoda arms
factories) and ambition. The Agreement also led to Czechoslovakia
feeling betrayed by Britain and France. However, under the Agreememt,
Hitler and Chamberlain promised never to go to war with one another.
It had seemed that the policy of appeasement had worked. Yet, when
Hitler broke the Agreement only six months later and occupied the rest
of Czechoslovakia, it showed conclusively that he could not be
trusted. At this point Chamberlain reluctantly began to seriously
rearm and prepare for war. The Agreement was very important as it
delayed the war for a year which crucially gave Britain time to
prepare for war.
Describe Britain’s preparations for war from 1938
*
Trenches were dug
*
Air-raid shelters were supplied & gas masks were distributed
*
Radar stations were set up & the RAF was prepared for conflict
*
Air Raid Precautions were strengthened
*
More hospital beds were made available
*
Plans were made to evacuate children to safety
On March 31st 1939, Chamberlain wrote a letter to the Polish
government stating that, ‘if their independence were threatened, His
Majesty’s Government and the French Government would at once lend them
all the support in their power. This Guarantee showed that Britain was
prepared to go to war against Germany over Poland.
The Nazi-Soviet Pact
T hat Britain continued to appease Hitler once he had broken
the Munich agreement convinced Stalin (leader of the USSR) that
Britain would not support the USSR if Hitler attacked. So, on August
23rd 1939 an agreement was announced between Germany and the USSR.
Stalin and Hitler promised not to attack one another. They also agreed
to share Poland between Germany and the USSR. This pact was the single
most important short-term cause of the Second World War. Knowing that
the USSR would not prevent an attack on Poland, Hitler ordered his
forces to cross into Poland on September 1st 1939. Under the guarantee
given to Poland, Chamberlain sent an ultimatum to Germany that Britain
would declare war unless the German troops were withdrawn from Poland
by 11.00 a.m. on September 3rd 1939. No reply was received and later
that day Chamberlain announced that Britain was at war with Germany.

Was Britain prepared for the outbreak of war with Germany in 1939?
YES
NO
*
The Munich Agreement had given Britain an extra 12 months to
prepare for the war.
*
By September 1939 the British people were prepared to stand up
against Hitler’s aggression.
*
The British navy was strong enough to protect Britain against
invasion.
*
The RAF’s fighter planes – the Hurricane and the Spitfire – were
the best in the world.
*
The development of Radar allowed the RAF to detect and target
enemy aircraft.
*
By 1939 plans were made to safely evacuate children to the
countryside.
*
Gas masks (38 million), air raid shelters and hospital beds had
been provided.
*
The blackout was introduced.
*
From 1934-39 the amount spent on defence increased by 4 times.
*
The British army was the least prepared for modern warfare.
*
Conscription was introduced in May 1939 but when war broke out,
the army was seriously short of trained soldiers, modern transport
and tanks.
*
The RAF only had half the number of planes that Hitler had. The
Germans had 824 fighters and 1017 bombers whilst Britain only had
591 fighters.
*
Many British pilots were reservists and part-timers. Germany had
been training 800 new pilots a month, Britain just 200.
Was the failure of appeasement the main reason for Britain declaring
war in 1939?
YES
NO
*
Appeasement failed. It allowed Hitler to become more powerful and
aggressive e.g. he gained soldiers, gold and iron ore from
Austria, coal and arms factories from Czechoslovakia.
*
Appeasement encouraged Hitler to believe that no nation would
stand up to him. This encouraged Hitler to be more aggressive.
*
Britain continued to appease Hitler once he had broken the Munich
agreement. Stalin became convinced that Britain would not support
the USSR if Hitler attacked, so Stalin signed the Nazi-Soviet
Pact.
*
There was no sense of collective international responsibility.
*
Britain was not militarily prepared for war before 1939.
Appeasement was successful in that it gave Britain time to prepare
for war.
*
The Nazi-Soviet Pact was a key development which made war almost
inevitable.
*
Hitler was fired by a desire to regain all land that Germany had
lost under the Treaty of Versailles.
*
Britain’s Guarantee with Poland and France was a key factor
leading to Britain declaring war on Germany following Hitler’s
invasion of Poland.
*
Hitler showed he could not be trusted once he broke the Munich
Agreement. This pushed public opinion in Britain firmly in support
of war against Nazi aggression.
Key Question: How did people in England and Wales cope with the
experience of the Second World War?
Preparations for war
With the outbreak of the Second World War the government’s
preparations were immediately put into action:
*
Conscription was introduced for men aged between 18 and 41
*
Children from the cities were evacuated to safer areas in the
countryside
*
Petrol rationing was introduced
*
Air-raid sirens were installed
*
Houses with gardens were given corrugated iron Anderson shelters
to be dug into the ground
*
Large public shelters were hurriedly built
*
Everybody was issued with a gas mask
*
The blackout was enforced
*
Civil defence regulations were strictly enforced by the volunteer
ARP wardens (Air Raid Precaution)
*
Men who were not conscripted into the regular army joined the
Local Defence Volunteers (Home Guard)
Following the failure of British troops to prevent the German
occupation of Norway, Chamberlain resigned as Prime Minister (on May 9th
1940). He was replaced by Winston Churchill. Through the 1930’s
Churchill had been one of the voices consistently to oppose the policy
of appeasement.
The Blitz
F rance surrendered to Germany on June 22nd 1940 and for the
next 12 months Britain stood alone against the Nazis. Hitler then
ordered his air force, the Luftwaffe, to destroy the RAF, after which
he planned to invade Britain. Despite being heavily outnumbered in the
Battle of Britain, fought in the skies over south-east England, the
RAF won because of:
*
Radar
*
The superiority of its Spitfire and Hurricane fighter aircraft
*
The bravery of their pilots
*
German mistakes
From the autumn of 1940 Hitler ordered the Luftwaffe to begin a
bombing campaign on major British cities, known as the Blitz. High
explosive and incendiary (fire-making) bombs were used. Hitler hoped
to force the British to surrender by continuously bombing British
civilians and breaking their morale. Other targets of the Blitz
included arms factories, ports and transport links. London was bombed
every night from September 7th to November 2nd. Other cities such as
Coventry, Liverpool, Cardiff and Swansea were also bombed.
The Blitz lasted from September 1940 until May 1941 during which
45,000 civilians were killed and 3½ million houses either damaged or
destroyed. For every civilian killed, 35 were made homeless.
Methods of surviving the Blitz
*
Volunteer Civilian Defence Units were set up e.g. ARP wardens, the
Auxiliary Fire Service, the First Aid Posts and Ambulance Service.
*
Air-raid shelters were used: Anderson shelters, Morrison shelters
(a large steel box set up in the home) and communal shelters for
large numbers of people. In London the underground stations were
also used as stations. Radar detected enemy planes and air-raid
sirens warned civilians of an oncoming raid.
*
T he Blackout ensured that the targets of the Luftwaffe
were not clearly visible. All windows were covered with thick
black curtains and street lighting was not used. ARP wardens would
inspect properties and ensure no light was visible. Car headlamps
were covered with a device which allowed only a small beam which
was directed straight down onto the road ahead. Cat’s eyes were
introduced at this time. This did result in a large increase in
deaths caused by motor accidents.
*
Barrage balloons would offer some protection to cities from aerial
bombing.
*
Censorship ensured that newspapers could not carry photos of dead
bodies. Newsreels focussed on positive stories of heroism,
recovery and success. Churchill and the Royal family visited
certain bomb- damaged areas to raise morale.



S wansea Bombing


Rationing
Hitler knew that Britain depended on imports from abroad for nearly
40% of its food. He built up his fleet of U-Boat submarines to sink
British merchant ships bringing food and other supplies into Britain.
In January 1940 the British government was forced to introduce food
rationing, quickly followed by clothes, petrol and coal rationing. By
1942 even water was being rationed and people were only allowed 13
centimetres of water in their weekly bath. Ration books were issued to
everyone and the ration coupons could be exchanged for goods such as
meat, eggs, butter and sugar. Some goods like bananas and oranges were
almost impossible to get except on the black market where spivs
illegally charged a high price. Many people actually improved their
diets because of rationing. Rationing also contributed to the wartime
spirit and ensured that positive morale was maintained. People were
also encouraged to ‘Dig for Victory’ by growing their own food.





Evacuation
The government believed that children and the mothers of young
children would be safer in the countryside than the cities – protected
from the Blitz. The government decided not to make evacuation
compulsory as this might damage morale but posters, leaflets and
messages on the radio were designed to persuade parents to evacuate
their children. Nothing would have damaged morale and turned people
against the war like the death of children. Blind and disabled people
were also evacuated.
They were evacuated in great numbers by train or bus. In September
1939 1½ million people were evacuated. Some families made their own
arrangements and sent children to stay with friends or relatives.
Whole schools were often evacuated with their teachers and were
allowed to share a rural school building with the local children.
The experience of the evacuees was mixed. Many were made welcome,
treated very well and experienced a better standard of living than
they did at home. Others were resented or mistreated. Some suffered
from homesickness.
From January 1940 onwards – with the lack of bombing up to this point
– families began to return home. This alarmed the government.

Women’s contribution to the war effort

The contribution of women to the war effort was far greater than it
had been during the First World War. Women were encouraged to enlist
in the armed services, the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS), the
Women’s Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF) and the Women’s Royal Naval Service
(WRENS). Although women did not fight they provided valuable support,
from filling sandbags to operating searchlights. Nursing in both
civilian and military hospitals was an essential occupation.
As men were conscripted into the armed forces many industries faced
labour shortages. Unmarried women were conscripted to work in
munitions factories. The Women’s Land Army filled the shortage of farm
workers. The work of the land girls and the ‘Dig for Victory’ campaign
helped to double food production by 1943. By 1943, 57% of workers were
women. Women also coped with both rationing and evacuation. The war
again gave women the opportunity to prove themselves at the workplace.
Many women gained a sense of social freedom as well as financial
independence.






Key Question: How important was it to maintain people’s morale during
the war?
Government methods to maintain morale
The government believed it was essential to keep morale high and
maintain a positive attitude towards the war. Propaganda was widely
used which promoted a wartime spirit. Victories such as the Battle of
Britain were widely publicised through newsreels, radio, newspapers,
magazines etc. The best artists produced a range of propaganda
posters. Churchill’s speeches inspired the people.
The government also used censorship to control the news. Military
disasters, such as the fall of Singapore, which could have damaged
morale, were played down. Churchill and the Royal family would visit
bomb-damaged areas to raise spirits. Rationing and evacuation also
helped maintain morale.
The impact of Winston Churchill
C hurchill became Prime Minister in May 1940, following
Chamberlain’s resignation. Churchill proved to be an outstanding
wartime leader. He set about restoring the battered morale of the
British people by giving stirring speeches and visiting bomb-hit
areas. He lifted spirits by appearing firm in the belief that Britain
would win the war. His ‘V’ for victory sign symbolised this. Churchill
worked hard to ensure that the Allied leaders – Roosevelt of the USA
and Stalin of the USSR – remained united in order to defeat Hitler and
Germany. Churchill also made successful tactical decisions.


Planning for peace
The British people were determined to create a better world for
themselves and their children once the war was over. Politicians from
all main political parties began planning for a better future,
including William Beveridge (Liberal), Aneurin Bevan (Labour) and R.A
Butler (Conservative).
The Beveridge Report on improving social security was published in
December 1942. The report recommended that the state should look after
its citizens ‘from the cradle to the grave’. The report also
recognised 5 ‘giants’ which were responsible for the problems faced by
ordinary people – want, ignorance, disease, squalor and idleness.
There was a growing expectation that post-war the government would
improve education, national insurance, health, housing and employment.
In 1943 the Ministry of Town and Country Planning was set up to plan
the rebuilding needed after the bomb damage. The 1944 Education Act
aimed to overcome ’ignorance’ by giving all children access to
secondary education. The school leaving age was raised to 15 years.

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Key Question: How difficult were conditions in Britain in 1945?
The 1945 General Election
Following Germany’s surrender in May 1945 a general election was
called for July 5th. The Conservatives believed they would win because
of Churchill’s popularity as the man who had led Britain through the
war. However, Labour’s leader, Clement Attlee, believed that his
party’s promise of radical social and economic reforms would be
popular. Labour won a massive – and surprising – victory.

Why did Labour win the 1945 election?
*
Although Winston Churchill was popular, his party were not. People
remembered the Depression and struggle under Conservative rule in
the 1930’s.
*
Labour’s promise of radical social and economic reforms appealed
to many, especially younger voters.
*
The Conservative election campaign was disastrous. They
concentrated on Churchill’s war record when the British people
wanted to put the war behind them.
*
Churchill claimed that Labour would have to rely on ‘some form of
Gestapo’. Many were outraged by this attempt to liken Labour to
Hitler’s secret police.
*
Unlike the Conservatives, Attlee did not misjudge the mood of the
people. He knew that the people wanted a better and fairer Britain
after the war. Labour promised jobs, fair wages, good houses,
pensions for all the aged, free education and free healthcare.
They also promised to return Britain to prosperity.

The economic situation in Wales and England in 1945
Britain was to pay a heavy price for military victory in the Second
World War which led to economic decline and the loss of its empire.
The war ruined the British economy. The country had spent almost £7000
million – a quarter of the national wealth – on the war effort.
Factories that had built consumer goods such as cars, fridges and
cookers had been converted to produce tanks, guns, bombs etc. By the
end of the war Britain was over £3000 million in debt. There was a
shortage of food and raw materials and rationing had to continue.
Thousands of shops, schools factories and houses that had been
destroyed by bombing also had to be rebuilt. The only country to
emerge economically strong from the war was the USA. War-damaged
Britain could no longer compete. Also war-damaged Europe and Britain’s
traditional overseas markets could not afford to buy British goods.
America gave aid (loans) to rebuild the shattered economies of Europe
– it was to America that these countries turned to.
Britain had also been overtaken by the USA and USSR as superpowers.
Britain was militarily and financially weakened. In 1947 India gained
independence from Britain. Other countries soon followed as the
British Empire gradually came to an end.
However, there was full employment. The shipyards and coal mines were
working to full capacity and there was a sense of optimism about the
future. Attitudes were changing – the British people no longer cared
as they once did about the Empire.
How did the Labour government deal with the problems of the time?
The Beveridge Report

William Beveridge was an economist and a government adviser. In 1942
he published the Beveridge Report, which was a plan for reconstruction
after the war. He called for the creation of a Welfare State (a
country where the government provides and cares for its people ‘from
the cradle to the grave’) by addressing the five evil giants of:
*
Want (poverty)
*
Squalor (poor living conditions)
*
Disease (lack of health care)
*
Ignorance (lack of educational opportunities)
*
Idleness (lack of work)
The Beveridge Report called for a series of radical reforms to deal
with each of these ‘giants’. The Report was too radical for Churchill
and the Conservatives who thought that the reforms would be too
expensive and that people themselves – not the state – should be
responsible for their own welfare. However, Clement Attlee and the
Labour Party welcomed the report and adopted it as part of Labour
policy.

Labour’s social reforms
Once in power the Labour government set about attacking Beveridge’s
‘five giants’. They concentrated on providing income security, better
health, education, housing and full employment.
a.
The battle against Want
Responsibility for much of the work on income security was given to
James Griffiths, M.P. for Llanelli, who was appointed Minister for
National Insurance. The 1946 National Insurance Act insured everybody
for sickness benefit, unemployment benefit, pensions, widows’
pensions, maternity grants and death grants. Compensation was provided
for injured workers through the Industrial Injuries Act. A National
Assistance Board was added in 1948 to deal with additional payments
for those who needed particular help, especially the elderly. James
Griffiths abolished what remained of the Poor Law and workhouses as
well as the UAB’s and the means test. Family Allowance was also paid
to all mothers for every child. A welfare state was created.
b.
The battle against Squalor
Aneurin Bevan was appointed Health Minister with additional
responsibility for housing. He implemented Labour’s ‘homes for all
policy’. The Housing Acts of 1946 and 1949 offered financial help to
local authorities to rebuild towns and cities. As a result 800,000 new
homes were built between 1946 and 1951, but the policy was hampered by
a shortage of money and materials. The total figures never got close
to the 350,000 houses built per year during the 1930’s. 80% of the
houses built by the local authorities were council houses to be rented
by working class families. This helped the poorer but a great shortage
of new houses remained. The Acts also set minimum standards for
housing in an attempt to rid the country of slum housing. Some slums
were demolished and houses were improved by the installation of
bathrooms and hot water systems.
For a time the government had to accommodate homeless people
(following the Blitz) in disused army camps. Prefabricated houses,
known as ‘prefabs’, were built as temporary housing. The 1946 new
Towns Act led to the building of new towns such as Telford and
Cwmbran, to reduce overcrowding in the cities. The 1949 Access to the
Countryside Act encouraged people to enjoy life outside the towns and
cities.
c.
The battle against Idleness
The 1948 Employment and Training Act aimed to establish a trained
workforce. It gave funding to train school leavers and to retrain
others. The Labour government was determined that people should never
again experience mass unemployment. By 1947 unemployment in Wales was
down to 5.2%.
d.
The battle against Ignorance
The 1944 Education Act, drawn up by the Conservative M.P., R.A.
Butler, was finally passed into law by the Labour government in 1947.
The act aimed to destroy ignorance by offering free secondary
education for all. The school leaving age was raised to 15. Each child
was offered diversity and equality of opportunity through a new
secondary system based on 3 different types of school:
*
Grammar schools, providing a traditional academic education for
those who passed the 11+ exam
*
Secondary Modern schools, offering a more practical education for
those who failed the 11+ exam
*
Technical schools, offering more vocational training (a lack of
resources meant that few technical schools were established.
The Act resulted in an increase in the number of pupils staying in
secondary education and moving on to colleges and universities.
Children from all backgrounds could proceed to higher education.
Describe the new educational opportunities available after the war
By the terms of the 1944 Education Act, secondary education was
expanded to cover all abilities, in grammar schools, secondary modern
schools or in technical colleges. Pupils would have access to this
education free, from the age of 11. The school-leaving age was raised
to 15, so that pupils could have a worthwhile course of secondary
education. The new educational opportunities meant that children from
all kinds of backgrounds could proceed to higher education.
e.
The battle against Health
The National Health Service Act of 1946 took effect in 1948. Its aim
was to set up a range of health services that were ‘free at the point
of delivery. As Minister for Health, Aneurin Bevan was responsible for
establishing the NHS. He passionately believed that health care should
be free for everyone. Women and children received free medical care
for the first time. Previously, when visits to the doctor, dentist,
optician as well as medicine all had to be paid for, for the many who
could not afford medical care, their health, teeth and eyesight
suffered. Within a year of its foundation, 8½ million people had
received free dental treatment, 5¾ million pairs of glasses had been
issued and 187 million prescriptions had been written out. However,
the service was expensive to run, costing around £355 million a year.
It was paid for partly by National Insurance contributions and partly
out of general taxation.
Many doctors initially opposed the NHS. They feared a centralised
system which threatened their independence. Many doctors had been
working in private medical practices where they were paid directly by
their patients. A compromise was finally agreed whereby doctors were
allowed to carry out some private work whilst working mainly within
the NHS. The NHS was welcomed by the vast majority of people,
especially those who’d previously been denied medical care by doctors’
bills. However, in its first year, the cost of the NHS soared beyond
£500 million. By 1951 the government had to introduce charges for
dental and optical services. This outraged Aneurin Bevan who resigned
in protest.
Describe the role of Aneurin Bevan in setting up the National Health
Service

Aneurin Bevan was the Minster of Health and Housing and, as such, is
regarded as the architect of the NHS. He was responsible for
implementing
some of the ideas of the Beveridge Report and of introducing a Welfare
State which would look after its people ‘from the cradle to the
grave’. Based
on his own experiences of miners’ welfare in his home town of
Tredegar, he
introduced the idea of free health care for people.
How important was Aneurin Bevan in helping to create a Welfare State?
As Minister for Health and Housing in the post-war Labour governments,
Aneurin Bevan was important in implementing some of the key ideas of
the Beveridge Report. He aimed to produce a Welfare State which would
look after the people ‘from the cradle to the grave’. As Minister for
Health he introduced the NHS and the principle of free health care for
all. Health provision for the majority improved dramatically
especially women and children. Within a year of its foundation, 8½
million people had received free dental treatment, 5¾ million pairs of
glasses had been issued and 187 million prescriptions had been written
out. As Minister for Housing he was responsible for implementing
Labour’s ‘homes for all’ policy. However, house-building targets were
not fully met and Bevan did not foresee how expensive the NHS would
be. By 1951 the government had to introduce charges for dental and
optical services. Nevertheless, Britain’s Welfare State was the envy
of other countries in the world. Aneurin Bevan justifies being
remembered as the Architect of the Welfare State.
How important was the Beveridge Report?
The Beveridge Report was important because it had given the people
of Britain hope for a better society after the war. It highlighted the
‘Five Evil
Giants’ and made people aware that these could be addressed after the
war. Want could be addressed through the National Insurance Act;
Idleness
could be addressed through the Unemployment and Training Act; and
disease through creating the NHS, etc. The Beveridge Report was
important because it provided a blue-print for improvements after the
war; it provided a very important plan forreconstruction and was
adopted by Clement Attlee as Labour Party policy.
Key Question: How did the Labour government deal with the economic
problems
of the time?
Nationalisation
Labour introduced radical economic – as well as social – reforms. The
government wanted to introduce radical economic reforms to ensure that
British industry would become more efficient and competitive. Attlee
believed that the only way to achieve this was for the government to
nationalise – to take control of – all the key industries in Britain.
Many key industries were nationalised between 1946 and 1949: coal in
1946, electricity in 1947, transport in 1948 and gas in 1949. Labour
introduced this policy of nationalisation (converting key industries
from private to state control) as:
*
These industries needed massive investment in order to modernise
and become more competitive. It was felt that only the government
could provide such money.
*
Private owners – especially in the coal industry – had a poor
safety record. Workers would be protected by national guidelines
which would be guaranteed by the government in the nationalised
industries.
*
They felt that workers would have added pride and commitment in
working for industries which were owned by the nation.
*
They believed it was wrong for just a few owners and shareholders
to profit from these key industries.
*
These industries should provide good service for people rather
than just focus on profit.
The previous owners of these industries received compensation. The
whole programme was very expensive. With millions spent on
compensation, millions more were spent on investment in new technology
and machinery. Nevertheless, the nationalisation of the coal industry
was celebrated in the mining valleys. The coal owners were hated,
accused of profiteering and neglecting their workforce. Nearly £32
million was spent on the coal industry in South Wales alone between
1948 and 1952. However, the harsh winter of 1947 exposed the
government’s financial difficulties, making the shortage of coal and
other fuel obvious. This caused short-time working and serious
disruption across industry.
The Conservatives did not oppose the nationalisation of the coal
mines, railways, docks and canals as they were all old-fashioned and
in need of large-scale investment to be modernised. However, iron and
steel was seen as a relatively modern industry that was run
efficiently under private ownership. When the government proposed to
nationalise the iron and steel industry in 1949, the Conservatives
attacked the policy. The Conservatives managed to delay this
nationalisation and, during this period, the public began to associate
nationalisation with declining industries and government control.
Explain why the Labour government introduced a policy of
nationalisation
Labour nationalised many key industries between 1946 and 1949: coal –
1946; electricity – 1947; transport – 1948; and gas – 1949. Labour
introduced this policy of nationalisation because these industries
needed massive investment in order to modernise and it was felt that
only the government could provide the money. Additionally, workers
would be protected by national guidelines which were guaranteed by the
government, who believed that workers would have added pride and
commitment in working for industries which were owned by the nation.



Why did the Labour Party lose the general election in 1951?
*
Setting up both the NHS and the Welfare State were very expensive.
Taxation was very high, to pay for the social reforms, NHS,
nationalisation, re-armament caused by the Cold War etc. Middle
class voters resented having to pay higher taxes.
*
The policy of nationalisation was also very expensive and promoted
uncompetitive and inefficient industries. Labour failed to
nationalise the iron and steel industry because of Conservative
opposition. Many began to believe that there was too much
government interference in the running of the economy.
*
The Conservatives played on the fear that Labour might move from
socialism to communism.
*
In 1951 the government was forced to introduce charges for dental
and optical services. Aneurin Bevan resigned.
*
Inflation threatened living standards.
*
Rationing continued throughout this period.
*
Although 800,000 new houses were built during this period, the
total figures remained well below the 350,000 houses per year
built during the 1930’s. There remained a shortage of houses.
How successful were the Labour governments of 1945 - 1951 in their
economic and social policies?
The Labour government took over a bankrupt economy in 1945. They
introduced nationalisation and successfully took over many of the key
industries, such as coal mining. Lots of employment was created. There
were also many social reforms: the Labour government implemented the
Beveridge Report, addressing the Five Evil Giants – Want, Idleness,
Disease, Ignorance and Squalor (briefly outline each). The NHS is
still with us today. However,
not all of Labour’s economic and social policies were successful.
Nationalisation proved to be very expensive and not very competitive.
The NHS and the Welfare State were also very expensive with Aneurin
Bevan himself resigning over the issue of prescription charges. The
fact that the public voted a
Conservative government into power in 1951 reflects dissatisfaction
with the
lack of success of the Labour governments.
How far did the Labour governments of 1945-1951 succeed in their
social and economic policies?
SUCCESS
FAILURE
*
Lots of employment was created, in contrast to the pre-war period.
*
They implemented the Beveridge Report, passing many social reforms
that addressed the ‘5 evil giants’.
*
The NHS gave free medical care to all and still exists today.
Within a year of its foundation, 8½ million people had received
free dental treatment, 5¾ million pairs of glasses had been issued
and 187 million prescriptions had been written out.
*
The 1946 National Insurance Act insured everybody for sickness
benefit, unemployment benefit, pensions, widows’ pensions,
maternity grants and death grants. Compensation was provided for
injured workers. Family Allowance was also paid to all mothers for
every child. A welfare state was created.
*
A new system of secondary education was established. The
school-leaving age was raised to 15. There was an increase in the
number of pupils staying in secondary education and moving on to
colleges and universities. School leavers were offered training.
*
Setting up both the NHS and the Welfare State were very expensive.
*
The policy of nationalisation was also very expensive and promoted
uncompetitive and inefficient industries. Labour failed to
nationalise the iron and steel industry because of Conservative
opposition.
*
Taxation was very high, to pay for the social reforms, NHS,
nationalisation, re-armament caused by the Cold War etc.
*
In 1951 the government was forced to introduce charges for dental
and optical services. Aneurin Bevan resigned.
*
Inflation threatened living standards.
*
The fact that the Conservatives won the 1951 suggests that the
post-war Labour governments did not fully succeed in their social
and economic policies.
*
Rationing continued throughout this period.
*
Although 800,000 new houses were built during this period, the
total figures remained well below the 350,000 houses per year
built during the 1930’s. There remained a shortage of houses.
Test Yourself:
https://www.bbc.com/education/guides/zsd68mn/test
Watch:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/intermediate2/history/cradle_to_the_grave/welfare_state/revision/5/
http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/intermediate2/history/cradle_to_the_grave/welfare_state/revision/7/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ywP8wjfOx4
Sample Answers










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